Adopting Environmentally Aware Coil Cleaners

Importance of Proper Refrigerant Levels

Maintaining mobile home HVAC systems presents a unique set of challenges that often require homeowners to adopt innovative solutions. One such challenge is the necessity of keeping the system's coils clean to ensure optimal performance. Over time, dust, dirt, and other contaminants can accumulate on the coils, reducing efficiency and increasing energy consumption. Ductwork in mobile homes is often smaller and requires precise installation hvac system for mobile home technician. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners as part of a broader move towards sustainable living.


One of the primary challenges in maintaining mobile home HVAC systems is their compact design. Mobile homes typically have limited space for heating and cooling units, which means they must work harder to regulate temperatures effectively. This increased workload can lead to faster accumulation of debris on the coils, necessitating regular cleaning. However, traditional coil cleaners often contain harsh chemicals that can be harmful to both the environment and human health.


Environmentally aware coil cleaners offer a compelling alternative by using natural ingredients that minimize ecological impact while still effectively removing buildup from HVAC coils. These green cleaning solutions are not only biodegradable but also non-toxic, making them safer for homeowners and their families. By choosing eco-friendly products, homeowners contribute to reducing chemical runoff into local water systems and decrease air pollution resulting from volatile organic compounds (VOCs).


Furthermore, adopting environmentally conscious cleaning practices aligns with broader trends toward sustainability in home maintenance. As awareness grows about climate change and environmental degradation, more people are seeking ways to lessen their carbon footprint. Utilizing green coil cleaners is one small yet significant step in this direction-demonstrating a commitment to preserving natural resources for future generations.


However, transitioning to environmentally aware products does come with its own set of considerations. Homeowners must ensure that these alternatives are as effective as conventional products in maintaining system efficiency. Researching product reviews and consulting with HVAC professionals can provide insights into which green cleaners deliver reliable results without compromising performance.


In conclusion, maintaining mobile home HVAC systems involves navigating various challenges-one of which is ensuring clean coils for efficient operation. By adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners, homeowners not only address this issue effectively but also align themselves with sustainable living practices. This choice reflects an increasing recognition that individual actions play a crucial role in safeguarding our planet's future-proving that even small changes can make a significant impact when it comes to environmental stewardship.

In the pursuit of maintaining optimal HVAC efficiency, the significance of coil cleaners cannot be overstated. These unsung heroes play a pivotal role in ensuring that heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems operate at peak performance. However, as we become increasingly aware of our environmental footprint, it is imperative to adopt environmentally conscious practices in every aspect of our lives, including the choice and use of coil cleaners.


The coils within an HVAC system are crucial components that facilitate heat exchange. Over time, these coils accumulate dirt, dust, and other airborne particles which impede their functionality. This buildup not only reduces the efficiency of the system but also increases energy consumption as the equipment works harder to achieve desired temperature settings. Therefore, regular cleaning with effective coil cleaners is essential for maintaining both performance and energy efficiency.


Traditionally, many coil cleaners have contained harmful chemicals that pose risks to both human health and the environment. These substances can lead to indoor air pollution and contribute to broader ecological issues when they enter waterways or soil through improper disposal. As awareness grows about these impacts, there is a pressing need to shift towards environmentally aware coil cleaners that minimize harm while still delivering effective results.


Environmentally friendly coil cleaners are formulated using biodegradable ingredients that break down more easily without leaving toxic residues. By choosing such products, HVAC professionals can significantly reduce their ecological impact while ensuring their clients' systems remain efficient and safe. Furthermore, these alternatives often come in concentrated forms or reusable packaging which helps reduce waste-a crucial consideration as we strive for sustainability across industries.


Adopting green practices in HVAC maintenance extends beyond simply choosing eco-friendly products; it encompasses a holistic approach to responsible usage and disposal. Training technicians on best practices for applying these cleaners efficiently can further enhance outcomes by minimizing product wastage and ensuring thorough cleaning. Additionally, implementing proper disposal methods for used cleaning solutions safeguards against potential environmental contamination.


In conclusion, the role of coil cleaners in ensuring HVAC efficiency is indispensable; however, it must evolve alongside our growing commitment to environmental stewardship. By adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners and integrating sustainable practices into maintenance routines, we can achieve a balance between operational excellence and ecological responsibility. As stewards of both technology and nature's resources alike-this transition reflects not just an opportunity but an obligation towards building a more sustainable future for generations to come.

Recognizing Signs of Refrigerant Leaks in Mobile Home Systems

Refrigerant leaks in mobile home systems can lead to significant issues, not only impacting the efficiency of cooling and heating systems but also posing environmental and health risks.. Recognizing the signs of these leaks is crucial for timely intervention and prevention of future occurrences.

Posted by on 2024-12-27

How Energy Efficiency Upgrades Lower Mobile Home Utility Costs

Title: Accessing Funding and Incentives for Upgrades: How Energy Efficiency Upgrades Lower Mobile Home Utility Costs In today's world, where environmental consciousness and economic prudence go hand in hand, mobile home owners are increasingly turning towards energy efficiency upgrades to reduce utility costs.. These improvements not only pave the way for a more sustainable lifestyle but also offer significant financial relief.

Posted by on 2024-12-27

Signs and Symptoms of Low Refrigerant

In recent years, the environmental impact of traditional coil cleaners has come under increased scrutiny. As our understanding of ecological preservation deepens, it becomes evident that many conventional cleaning agents used in HVAC systems pose significant risks to both environmental and human health. This awareness has prompted a shift towards adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners, fostering a more sustainable approach to maintenance practices.


Traditional coil cleaners often contain harsh chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and phosphates. These substances are effective at breaking down grime and organic buildup on coils but can be detrimental when released into the environment. When rinsed off during cleaning processes, these chemicals can enter waterways, leading to water pollution and harming aquatic life. Moreover, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from these products contribute to air pollution and pose risks to indoor air quality for building occupants.


The manufacturing process of traditional coil cleaners also raises environmental concerns. The production of these chemical-intensive products consumes significant energy resources and often results in harmful by-products that further degrade ecological systems. Additionally, packaging waste from single-use containers adds to the growing issue of landfill overflow.


Recognizing these challenges, there is a growing trend towards adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners that offer a greener alternative without compromising efficacy. These eco-friendly products are formulated with biodegradable ingredients that minimize their ecological footprint. By utilizing natural solvents and plant-based surfactants, they effectively clean coils while reducing the release of harmful toxins into the environment.


One notable advantage of environmentally conscious coil cleaners is their contribution to improving indoor air quality. By eliminating VOCs and other hazardous emissions, they create healthier spaces for occupants by reducing respiratory irritants and allergens. This aspect is particularly crucial in settings like schools, hospitals, and office buildings where maintaining optimal air quality is paramount.


Furthermore, manufacturers of green coil cleaners often adopt sustainable practices throughout their supply chains. From sourcing renewable raw materials to using recycled packaging materials, these companies strive to ensure every phase of production aligns with sustainability principles.


Transitioning to environmentally aware coil cleaners not only benefits the planet but also offers economic advantages for businesses in the long run. While initial costs may be slightly higher than traditional options due to advanced formulations or certifications like Green Seal or EcoLogo standards compliance; organizations can save money through reduced regulatory fines associated with pollution control measures or hazardous waste disposal fees over time.


In conclusion, as we continue striving toward greater environmental stewardship across all industries-HVAC included-it becomes imperative that we address outdated practices contributing unnecessarily large carbon footprints within our operations - including those involving potentially dangerous chemicals found within traditional cooling system maintenance solutions currently utilized today! Embracing eco-friendly alternatives will help protect natural resources while safeguarding public health-a win-win scenario worth pursuing wholeheartedly!

Signs and Symptoms of Low Refrigerant

Impact of Low Refrigerant on HVAC System Performance

In recent years, the push towards environmentally conscious living has permeated nearly every facet of our daily lives. One area that is seeing a notable transformation is the use of coil cleaners for mobile homes. Traditionally, coil cleaners have been laden with harsh chemicals that not only pose risks to our health but also have detrimental effects on the environment. Fortunately, there is a growing trend towards adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners, and this shift brings several compelling benefits.


Firstly, environmental awareness in cleaning products contributes significantly to reducing harmful emissions and pollutants. Conventional coil cleaners often contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other hazardous substances that can release toxic fumes into the air during application. These emissions contribute to air pollution and can affect respiratory health over time. By choosing environmentally friendly alternatives, mobile home owners can reduce their carbon footprint and help protect the atmosphere from further harm.


Moreover, environmentally aware coil cleaners are designed with biodegradability in mind. This means they break down more easily in nature without leaving behind harmful residues that could contaminate soil or water sources. Given that mobile homes are often situated in scenic locations or close to natural environments, using biodegradable products ensures these beautiful surroundings remain unspoiled by chemical runoff.


Another advantage of switching to eco-friendly coil cleaners is their enhanced safety for users and occupants of mobile homes. Traditional cleaning agents can be corrosive or cause skin irritations upon contact, posing risks especially to children or pets who may inadvertently come into contact with cleaned surfaces. On the other hand, green cleaning products are formulated using natural ingredients that are gentler on both surfaces and skin while still providing effective cleaning power.


The adoption of environmentally conscious practices also aligns well with broader sustainability goals many individuals aim to achieve today. Mobile homeowners interested in sustainable living can see this as an opportunity to make a positive impact through their choices. By opting for eco-friendly coil cleaners, they contribute to a larger movement toward preserving our planet's resources for future generations while setting an example for others in their community.


Furthermore, companies producing these environmentally aware products often engage in ethical manufacturing processes which include responsible sourcing of materials and fair labor practices-adding another layer of social responsibility for conscientious consumers.


In conclusion, the benefits of using environmentally aware coil cleaners for mobile homes extend far beyond just effective cleaning; they encompass improved personal health safety measures, ecological preservation efforts as well as alignment with global sustainability initiatives-all crucial factors worth considering when making purchasing decisions related to home maintenance supplies today. As awareness grows around environmental issues facing our world now more than ever before it becomes imperative we take actionable steps like these wherever possible thus fostering healthier ecosystems alongside enhanced quality living standards simultaneously benefiting ourselves collectively long term too!

Steps for Diagnosing Low Refrigerant Issues

In the modern world, where environmental consciousness is gradually becoming an integral part of our daily lives, the adoption of eco-friendly products has gained significant traction. One such area that has seen a notable shift towards sustainability is in the cleaning industry, specifically with coil cleaners. Coil cleaners are essential for maintaining HVAC systems, ensuring they run efficiently and effectively. As we look to adopt environmentally aware coil cleaners, it is crucial to identify key features that align with our sustainable aspirations.


First and foremost, one of the most important features to consider in eco-friendly coil cleaners is biodegradability. Products that are biodegradable break down naturally over time without causing harm to ecosystems. This means they do not accumulate or persist in our environment, reducing the potential for pollution in water bodies and soil. When selecting a coil cleaner, looking for certifications or labels indicating its biodegradable nature can ensure that you are making a responsible choice.


Another critical feature to assess is the absence of toxic chemicals. Traditional coil cleaners often contain harsh substances like hydrochloric acid or chlorine-based compounds that can pose risks not only to the environment but also to human health. Eco-friendly alternatives should be free from these dangerous chemicals and instead rely on plant-based ingredients or other non-toxic formulations. This makes them safer for individuals handling them and minimizes any adverse effects on air quality when used indoors.


Energy efficiency is also a vital factor when choosing an eco-friendly coil cleaner. A product's ability to clean coils effectively without requiring excessive energy consumption aligns perfectly with sustainable practices. High-performance cleaners that work efficiently at lower temperatures contribute to reduced energy usage by allowing HVAC systems to operate more smoothly and less frequently.


Packaging matters as well in the quest for sustainability. Opting for products with recyclable or minimal packaging helps reduce waste generation significantly. Some companies even go further by using containers made from recycled materials or offering refill options that encourage reuse rather than disposal.


Moreover, supporting local or ethical manufacturers can amplify your positive impact on the environment when choosing an eco-friendly coil cleaner. Companies committed to sustainable practices throughout their production processes often prioritize fair labor conditions, reduced carbon footprints, and responsible sourcing of materials.


Lastly, effectiveness should never be compromised when seeking environmentally friendly alternatives; thus finding a balance between being green while still providing excellent results is essential. Reading reviews from other users who have tested these products provides valuable insights into their performance levels compared against traditional options.


In conclusion, adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners requires careful consideration of several key features biodegradability ensures minimal ecological impact after use; non-toxicity protects both human health and nature; energy efficiency promotes conservation efforts; thoughtful packaging reduces waste generation; supporting ethical brands encourages broader change within industries-all while maintaining high standards for effectiveness ensure no compromise on cleanliness goals themselves! By prioritizing these aspects during your selection process will help pave way towards greener future where every small step counts collectively toward larger goal preserving planet Earth next generations enjoy too!

Preventive Measures and Maintenance Tips

Adopting environmentally aware coil cleaners is a commendable step towards sustainability and responsible facility management. As businesses and individuals increasingly recognize the importance of reducing their environmental footprint, the switch to green coil cleaning solutions offers both ecological benefits and practical advantages. This essay outlines several practical tips for successfully adopting and using these eco-friendly alternatives.


Firstly, understanding the composition of green coil cleaners is essential. These products are typically formulated with biodegradable ingredients that minimize harm to aquatic life and reduce chemical residues in water systems. When selecting a cleaner, it's important to verify its certifications or labels indicating compliance with environmental standards. Look for products endorsed by reputable organizations, such as Green Seal or EcoLogo, which ensure that the products have been rigorously tested for environmental impact.


Next, consider integrating regular training sessions for maintenance staff on the proper use of green cleaning solutions. Proper application techniques not only enhance the efficiency of cleaning but also prevent overuse, which can lead to unnecessary waste and increased costs. Training should cover dilution ratios, safety precautions, and equipment handling to maximize the effectiveness of eco-friendly products while ensuring the safety of personnel.


Another practical tip is to establish a routine maintenance schedule tailored to your specific HVAC system requirements. Regularly cleaned coils operate more efficiently, leading to reduced energy consumption and prolonged equipment life. By setting up a systematic cleaning timetable that aligns with seasonal needs or operational demands, facilities can maintain optimal performance without resorting to harsh chemicals.


Additionally, evaluate alternative methods alongside chemical cleaners for comprehensive maintenance strategies. For instance, incorporating physical cleaning tools like brushes or vacuum systems can help remove debris before applying any liquid solution. This approach reduces reliance on chemical agents alone and enhances overall cleanliness through mechanical action.


Finally, keep an open line of communication with suppliers regarding advancements in green technology within coil cleaning solutions. Innovations continue to emerge in this field, offering even more effective products with lower environmental impacts over time. Staying informed about new developments allows you to adopt cutting-edge solutions that further support sustainability goals.


In summary, transitioning to environmentally aware coil cleaners requires mindful selection processes backed by education and strategic planning. With careful product choice, thorough training programs for staff members, diligent scheduling practices coupled with alternative methods where applicable-and staying abreast of industry innovations-businesses can effectively integrate green coil cleaning solutions into their operations while contributing positively towards environmental conservation efforts.

When to Call a Professional HVAC Technician

In recent years, the global emphasis on sustainability and environmental responsibility has prompted industries to reevaluate their operational practices. One area that has seen significant transformation is the realm of coil cleaning in HVAC systems. Traditionally reliant on harsh chemical agents, the shift towards environmentally friendly coil cleaners not only highlights a commitment to reducing ecological footprints but also showcases tangible benefits for businesses and ecosystems alike. Through examining case studies and testimonials, we can better understand how adopting these green solutions has proven successful.


One compelling case study comes from a large commercial office building in New York City. Faced with rising air pollution concerns and stringent local regulations aimed at reducing chemical use, building managers sought alternatives to conventional coil cleaning products. They opted for an eco-friendly enzymatic cleaner known for its biodegradable properties and non-toxic formulation. The transition was seamless; maintenance staff reported no loss in cleaning efficacy, while noticing fewer instances of respiratory irritation due to chemical exposure-a common issue with traditional cleaners. Moreover, by choosing a product that reduced water usage by 30%, the company aligned itself with broader corporate sustainability goals, ultimately saving thousands of dollars annually on utility bills.


Another testament to the advantages of adopting green coil cleaners can be found within an educational institution in California. Schools are environments where health considerations are paramount, especially given the presence of children who may be more susceptible to airborne chemicals. The school district decided to switch from corrosive chemical-based cleaners to a citrus-based solution that was both safe and effective. This change not only reduced potential health risks but also extended the lifespan of HVAC equipment due to its non-corrosive nature-resulting in lower maintenance costs over time.


Furthermore, testimonials from facility managers across various industries consistently highlight improved indoor air quality as a critical benefit of using environmentally aware coil cleaners. A hotel chain operating throughout Europe reported increased guest satisfaction scores related directly to air freshness-a subtle yet powerful marketing advantage stemming from their commitment to sustainable practices.


The experiences shared through these case studies illustrate a broader narrative: adopting environmentally friendly products is not merely about compliance or public image; it is about recognizing a holistic value proposition that includes financial savings, enhanced safety measures, long-term equipment preservation, and positive environmental impact.


In conclusion, transitioning to eco-conscious coil cleaning products represents more than just an operational change-it signifies an investment in a sustainable future that benefits businesses and communities alike. As industry leaders continue sharing their success stories through case studies and testimonials, they pave the way for others considering similar initiatives-demonstrating that what is good for the planet can indeed be good for business too.

 

An ab anbar (water reservoir) with double domes and windcatchers (openings near the top of the towers) in the central desert city of Naeen, Iran. Windcatchers are a form of natural ventilation.[1]

Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space. Ventilation is mainly used to control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor pollutants; it can also be used to control indoor temperature, humidity, and air motion to benefit thermal comfort, satisfaction with other aspects of the indoor environment, or other objectives.

The intentional introduction of outdoor air is usually categorized as either mechanical ventilation, natural ventilation, or mixed-mode ventilation.[2]

  • Mechanical ventilation is the intentional fan-driven flow of outdoor air into and/or out from a building. Mechanical ventilation systems may include supply fans (which push outdoor air into a building), exhaust[3] fans (which draw air out of a building and thereby cause equal ventilation flow into a building), or a combination of both (called balanced ventilation if it neither pressurizes nor depressurizes the inside air,[3] or only slightly depressurizes it). Mechanical ventilation is often provided by equipment that is also used to heat and cool a space.
  • Natural ventilation is the intentional passive flow of outdoor air into a building through planned openings (such as louvers, doors, and windows). Natural ventilation does not require mechanical systems to move outdoor air. Instead, it relies entirely on passive physical phenomena, such as wind pressure, or the stack effect. Natural ventilation openings may be fixed, or adjustable. Adjustable openings may be controlled automatically (automated), owned by occupants (operable), or a combination of both. Cross ventilation is a phenomenon of natural ventilation.
  • Mixed-mode ventilation systems use both mechanical and natural processes. The mechanical and natural components may be used at the same time, at different times of day, or in different seasons of the year.[4] Since natural ventilation flow depends on environmental conditions, it may not always provide an appropriate amount of ventilation. In this case, mechanical systems may be used to supplement or regulate the naturally driven flow.

Ventilation is typically described as separate from infiltration.

  • Infiltration is the circumstantial flow of air from outdoors to indoors through leaks (unplanned openings) in a building envelope. When a building design relies on infiltration to maintain indoor air quality, this flow has been referred to as adventitious ventilation.[5]

The design of buildings that promote occupant health and well-being requires a clear understanding of the ways that ventilation airflow interacts with, dilutes, displaces, or introduces pollutants within the occupied space. Although ventilation is an integral component of maintaining good indoor air quality, it may not be satisfactory alone.[6] A clear understanding of both indoor and outdoor air quality parameters is needed to improve the performance of ventilation in terms of occupant health and energy.[7] In scenarios where outdoor pollution would deteriorate indoor air quality, other treatment devices such as filtration may also be necessary.[8] In kitchen ventilation systems, or for laboratory fume hoods, the design of effective effluent capture can be more important than the bulk amount of ventilation in a space. More generally, the way that an air distribution system causes ventilation to flow into and out of a space impacts the ability of a particular ventilation rate to remove internally generated pollutants. The ability of a system to reduce pollution in space is described as its "ventilation effectiveness". However, the overall impacts of ventilation on indoor air quality can depend on more complex factors such as the sources of pollution, and the ways that activities and airflow interact to affect occupant exposure.

An array of factors related to the design and operation of ventilation systems are regulated by various codes and standards. Standards dealing with the design and operation of ventilation systems to achieve acceptable indoor air quality include the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standards 62.1 and 62.2, the International Residential Code, the International Mechanical Code, and the United Kingdom Building Regulations Part F. Other standards that focus on energy conservation also impact the design and operation of ventilation systems, including ASHRAE Standard 90.1, and the International Energy Conservation Code.

When indoor and outdoor conditions are favorable, increasing ventilation beyond the minimum required for indoor air quality can significantly improve both indoor air quality and thermal comfort through ventilative cooling, which also helps reduce the energy demand of buildings.[9][10] During these times, higher ventilation rates, achieved through passive or mechanical means (air-side economizer, ventilative pre-cooling), can be particularly beneficial for enhancing people's physical health.[11] Conversely, when conditions are less favorable, maintaining or improving indoor air quality through ventilation may require increased use of mechanical heating or cooling, leading to higher energy consumption.

Ventilation should be considered for its relationship to "venting" for appliances and combustion equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, boilers, and wood stoves. Most importantly, building ventilation design must be careful to avoid the backdraft of combustion products from "naturally vented" appliances into the occupied space. This issue is of greater importance for buildings with more air-tight envelopes. To avoid the hazard, many modern combustion appliances utilize "direct venting" which draws combustion air directly from outdoors, instead of from the indoor environment.

Design of air flow in rooms

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The air in a room can be supplied and removed in several ways, for example via ceiling ventilation, cross ventilation, floor ventilation or displacement ventilation.[citation needed]

Furthermore, the air can be circulated in the room using vortexes which can be initiated in various ways:

Ventilation rates for indoor air quality

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The ventilation rate, for commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) buildings, is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of outdoor air, introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) in the imperial system, or liters per second (L/s) in the metric system (even though cubic meter per second is the preferred unit for volumetric flow rate in the SI system of units). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a per person or per unit floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per hour (ACH).

Standards for residential buildings

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For residential buildings, which mostly rely on infiltration for meeting their ventilation needs, a common ventilation rate measure is the air change rate (or air changes per hour): the hourly ventilation rate divided by the volume of the space (I or ACH; units of 1/h). During the winter, ACH may range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly air-sealed house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely air-sealed house.[12]

ASHRAE now recommends ventilation rates dependent upon floor area, as a revision to the 62-2001 standard, in which the minimum ACH was 0.35, but no less than 15 CFM/person (7.1 L/s/person). As of 2003, the standard has been changed to 3 CFM/100 sq. ft. (15 L/s/100 sq. m.) plus 7.5 CFM/person (3.5 L/s/person).[13]

Standards for commercial buildings

[edit]

Ventilation rate procedure

[edit]

Ventilation Rate Procedure is rate based on standard and prescribes the rate at which ventilation air must be delivered to space and various means to the condition that air.[14] Air quality is assessed (through CO2 measurement) and ventilation rates are mathematically derived using constants. Indoor Air Quality Procedure uses one or more guidelines for the specification of acceptable concentrations of certain contaminants in indoor air but does not prescribe ventilation rates or air treatment methods.[14] This addresses both quantitative and subjective evaluations and is based on the Ventilation Rate Procedure. It also accounts for potential contaminants that may have no measured limits, or for which no limits are not set (such as formaldehyde off-gassing from carpet and furniture).

Natural ventilation

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Natural ventilation harnesses naturally available forces to supply and remove air in an enclosed space. Poor ventilation in rooms is identified to significantly increase the localized moldy smell in specific places of the room including room corners.[11] There are three types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind-driven ventilation, pressure-driven flows, and stack ventilation.[15] The pressures generated by 'the stack effect' rely upon the buoyancy of heated or rising air. Wind-driven ventilation relies upon the force of the prevailing wind to pull and push air through the enclosed space as well as through breaches in the building's envelope.

Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally.[16] The technique was generally abandoned in larger US buildings during the late 20th century as the use of air conditioning became more widespread. However, with the advent of advanced Building Performance Simulation (BPS) software, improved Building Automation Systems (BAS), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) design requirements, and improved window manufacturing techniques; natural ventilation has made a resurgence in commercial buildings both globally and throughout the US.[17]

The benefits of natural ventilation include:

  • Improved indoor air quality (IAQ)
  • Energy savings
  • Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
  • Occupant control
  • Reduction in occupant illness associated with sick building syndrome
  • Increased worker productivity

Techniques and architectural features used to ventilate buildings and structures naturally include, but are not limited to:

  • Operable windows
  • Clerestory windows and vented skylights
  • Lev/convection doors
  • Night purge ventilation
  • Building orientation
  • Wind capture façades

Airborne diseases

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Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza, meningitis or COVID-19.[18] Opening doors and windows are good ways to maximize natural ventilation, which would make the risk of airborne contagion much lower than with costly and maintenance-requiring mechanical systems. Old-fashioned clinical areas with high ceilings and large windows provide the greatest protection. Natural ventilation costs little and is maintenance-free, and is particularly suited to limited-resource settings and tropical climates, where the burden of TB and institutional TB transmission is highest. In settings where respiratory isolation is difficult and climate permits, windows and doors should be opened to reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.[19]

Natural ventilation is not practical in much of the infrastructure because of climate. This means that the facilities need to have effective mechanical ventilation systems and or use Ceiling Level UV or FAR UV ventilation systems.

Ventilation is measured in terms of air changes per hour (ACH). As of 2023, the CDC recommends that all spaces have a minimum of 5 ACH.[20] For hospital rooms with airborne contagions the CDC recommends a minimum of 12 ACH.[21] Challenges in facility ventilation are public unawareness,[22][23] ineffective government oversight, poor building codes that are based on comfort levels, poor system operations, poor maintenance, and lack of transparency.[24]

Pressure, both political and economic, to improve energy conservation has led to decreased ventilation rates. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning rates have dropped since the energy crisis in the 1970s and the banning of cigarette smoke in the 1980s and 1990s.[25][26][better source needed]

Mechanical ventilation

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An axial belt-drive exhaust fan serving an underground car park. This exhaust fan's operation is interlocked with the concentration of contaminants emitted by internal combustion engines.

Mechanical ventilation of buildings and structures can be achieved by the use of the following techniques:

  • Whole-house ventilation
  • Mixing ventilation
  • Displacement ventilation
  • Dedicated subaerial air supply

Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV)

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Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV, also known as Demand Control Ventilation) makes it possible to maintain air quality while conserving energy.[27][28] ASHRAE has determined that "It is consistent with the ventilation rate procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy."[29] In a DCV system, CO2 sensors control the amount of ventilation.[30][31] During peak occupancy, CO2 levels rise, and the system adjusts to deliver the same amount of outdoor air as would be used by the ventilation-rate procedure.[32] However, when spaces are less occupied, CO2 levels reduce, and the system reduces ventilation to conserves energy. DCV is a well-established practice,[33] and is required in high occupancy spaces by building energy standards such as ASHRAE 90.1.[34]

Personalized ventilation

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Personalized ventilation is an air distribution strategy that allows individuals to control the amount of ventilation received. The approach delivers fresh air more directly to the breathing zone and aims to improve the air quality of inhaled air. Personalized ventilation provides much higher ventilation effectiveness than conventional mixing ventilation systems by displacing pollution from the breathing zone with far less air volume. Beyond improved air quality benefits, the strategy can also improve occupants' thermal comfort, perceived air quality, and overall satisfaction with the indoor environment. Individuals' preferences for temperature and air movement are not equal, and so traditional approaches to homogeneous environmental control have failed to achieve high occupant satisfaction. Techniques such as personalized ventilation facilitate control of a more diverse thermal environment that can improve thermal satisfaction for most occupants.

Local exhaust ventilation

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Local exhaust ventilation addresses the issue of avoiding the contamination of indoor air by specific high-emission sources by capturing airborne contaminants before they are spread into the environment. This can include water vapor control, lavatory effluent control, solvent vapors from industrial processes, and dust from wood- and metal-working machinery. Air can be exhausted through pressurized hoods or the use of fans and pressurizing a specific area.[35]
A local exhaust system is composed of five basic parts:

  1. A hood that captures the contaminant at its source
  2. Ducts for transporting the air
  3. An air-cleaning device that removes/minimizes the contaminant
  4. A fan that moves the air through the system
  5. An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged[35]

In the UK, the use of LEV systems has regulations set out by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which are referred to as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (CoSHH). Under CoSHH, legislation is set to protect users of LEV systems by ensuring that all equipment is tested at least every fourteen months to ensure the LEV systems are performing adequately. All parts of the system must be visually inspected and thoroughly tested and where any parts are found to be defective, the inspector must issue a red label to identify the defective part and the issue.

The owner of the LEV system must then have the defective parts repaired or replaced before the system can be used.

Smart ventilation

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Smart ventilation is a process of continually adjusting the ventilation system in time, and optionally by location, to provide the desired IAQ benefits while minimizing energy consumption, utility bills, and other non-IAQ costs (such as thermal discomfort or noise). A smart ventilation system adjusts ventilation rates in time or by location in a building to be responsive to one or more of the following: occupancy, outdoor thermal and air quality conditions, electricity grid needs, direct sensing of contaminants, operation of other air moving and air cleaning systems. In addition, smart ventilation systems can provide information to building owners, occupants, and managers on operational energy consumption and indoor air quality as well as a signal when systems need maintenance or repair. Being responsive to occupancy means that a smart ventilation system can adjust ventilation depending on demand such as reducing ventilation if the building is unoccupied. Smart ventilation can time-shift ventilation to periods when a) indoor-outdoor temperature differences are smaller (and away from peak outdoor temperatures and humidity), b) when indoor-outdoor temperatures are appropriate for ventilative cooling, or c) when outdoor air quality is acceptable. Being responsive to electricity grid needs means providing flexibility to electricity demand (including direct signals from utilities) and integration with electric grid control strategies. Smart ventilation systems can have sensors to detect airflow, systems pressures, or fan energy use in such a way that systems failures can be detected and repaired, as well as when system components need maintenance, such as filter replacement.[36]

Ventilation and combustion

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Combustion (in a fireplace, gas heater, candle, oil lamp, etc.) consumes oxygen while producing carbon dioxide and other unhealthy gases and smoke, requiring ventilation air. An open chimney promotes infiltration (i.e. natural ventilation) because of the negative pressure change induced by the buoyant, warmer air leaving through the chimney. The warm air is typically replaced by heavier, cold air.

Ventilation in a structure is also needed for removing water vapor produced by respiration, burning, and cooking, and for removing odors. If water vapor is permitted to accumulate, it may damage the structure, insulation, or finishes. [citation needed] When operating, an air conditioner usually removes excess moisture from the air. A dehumidifier may also be appropriate for removing airborne moisture.

Calculation for acceptable ventilation rate

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Ventilation guidelines are based on the minimum ventilation rate required to maintain acceptable levels of effluents. Carbon dioxide is used as a reference point, as it is the gas of highest emission at a relatively constant value of 0.005 L/s. The mass balance equation is:

Q = G/(Ci − Ca)

  • Q = ventilation rate (L/s)
  • G = CO2 generation rate
  • Ci = acceptable indoor CO2 concentration
  • Ca = ambient CO2 concentration[37]

Smoking and ventilation

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ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS-free air. A space with ETS requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a non-smoking environment.

The amount of ventilation in an ETS area is equal to the amount of an ETS-free area plus the amount V, where:

V = DSD × VA × A/60E

  • V = recommended extra flow rate in CFM (L/s)
  • DSD = design smoking density (estimated number of cigarettes smoked per hour per unit area)
  • VA = volume of ventilation air per cigarette for the room being designed (ft3/cig)
  • E = contaminant removal effectiveness[38]

History

[edit]
This ancient Roman house uses a variety of passive cooling and passive ventilation techniques. Heavy masonry walls, small exterior windows, and a narrow walled garden oriented N-S shade the house, preventing heat gain. The house opens onto a central atrium with an impluvium (open to the sky); the evaporative cooling of the water causes a cross-draft from atrium to garden.

Primitive ventilation systems were found at the Pločnik archeological site (belonging to the Vinča culture) in Serbia and were built into early copper smelting furnaces. The furnace, built on the outside of the workshop, featured earthen pipe-like air vents with hundreds of tiny holes in them and a prototype chimney to ensure air goes into the furnace to feed the fire and smoke comes out safely.[39]

Passive ventilation and passive cooling systems were widely written about around the Mediterranean by Classical times. Both sources of heat and sources of cooling (such as fountains and subterranean heat reservoirs) were used to drive air circulation, and buildings were designed to encourage or exclude drafts, according to climate and function. Public bathhouses were often particularly sophisticated in their heating and cooling. Icehouses are some millennia old, and were part of a well-developed ice industry by classical times.

The development of forced ventilation was spurred by the common belief in the late 18th and early 19th century in the miasma theory of disease, where stagnant 'airs' were thought to spread illness. An early method of ventilation was the use of a ventilating fire near an air vent which would forcibly cause the air in the building to circulate. English engineer John Theophilus Desaguliers provided an early example of this when he installed ventilating fires in the air tubes on the roof of the House of Commons. Starting with the Covent Garden Theatre, gas burning chandeliers on the ceiling were often specially designed to perform a ventilating role.

Mechanical systems

[edit]
The Central Tower of the Palace of Westminster. This octagonal spire was for ventilation purposes, in the more complex system imposed by Reid on Barry, in which it was to draw air out of the Palace. The design was for the aesthetic disguise of its function.[40][41]

A more sophisticated system involving the use of mechanical equipment to circulate the air was developed in the mid-19th century. A basic system of bellows was put in place to ventilate Newgate Prison and outlying buildings, by the engineer Stephen Hales in the mid-1700s. The problem with these early devices was that they required constant human labor to operate. David Boswell Reid was called to testify before a Parliamentary committee on proposed architectural designs for the new House of Commons, after the old one burned down in a fire in 1834.[40] In January 1840 Reid was appointed by the committee for the House of Lords dealing with the construction of the replacement for the Houses of Parliament. The post was in the capacity of ventilation engineer, in effect; and with its creation there began a long series of quarrels between Reid and Charles Barry, the architect.[42]

Reid advocated the installation of a very advanced ventilation system in the new House. His design had air being drawn into an underground chamber, where it would undergo either heating or cooling. It would then ascend into the chamber through thousands of small holes drilled into the floor, and would be extracted through the ceiling by a special ventilation fire within a great stack.[43]

Reid's reputation was made by his work in Westminster. He was commissioned for an air quality survey in 1837 by the Leeds and Selby Railway in their tunnel.[44] The steam vessels built for the Niger expedition of 1841 were fitted with ventilation systems based on Reid's Westminster model.[45] Air was dried, filtered and passed over charcoal.[46][47] Reid's ventilation method was also applied more fully to St. George's Hall, Liverpool, where the architect, Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, requested that Reid should be involved in ventilation design.[48] Reid considered this the only building in which his system was completely carried out.[49]

Fans

[edit]

With the advent of practical steam power, ceiling fans could finally be used for ventilation. Reid installed four steam-powered fans in the ceiling of St George's Hospital in Liverpool, so that the pressure produced by the fans would force the incoming air upward and through vents in the ceiling. Reid's pioneering work provides the basis for ventilation systems to this day.[43] He was remembered as "Dr. Reid the ventilator" in the twenty-first century in discussions of energy efficiency, by Lord Wade of Chorlton.[50]

History and development of ventilation rate standards

[edit]

Ventilating a space with fresh air aims to avoid "bad air". The study of what constitutes bad air dates back to the 1600s when the scientist Mayow studied asphyxia of animals in confined bottles.[51] The poisonous component of air was later identified as carbon dioxide (CO2), by Lavoisier in the very late 1700s, starting a debate as to the nature of "bad air" which humans perceive to be stuffy or unpleasant. Early hypotheses included excess concentrations of CO2 and oxygen depletion. However, by the late 1800s, scientists thought biological contamination, not oxygen or CO2, was the primary component of unacceptable indoor air. However, it was noted as early as 1872 that CO2 concentration closely correlates to perceived air quality.

The first estimate of minimum ventilation rates was developed by Tredgold in 1836.[52] This was followed by subsequent studies on the topic by Billings [53] in 1886 and Flugge in 1905. The recommendations of Billings and Flugge were incorporated into numerous building codes from 1900–the 1920s and published as an industry standard by ASHVE (the predecessor to ASHRAE) in 1914.[51]

The study continued into the varied effects of thermal comfort, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and biological contaminants. The research was conducted with human subjects in controlled test chambers. Two studies, published between 1909 and 1911, showed that carbon dioxide was not the offending component. Subjects remained satisfied in chambers with high levels of CO2, so long as the chamber remained cool.[51] (Subsequently, it has been determined that CO2 is, in fact, harmful at concentrations over 50,000ppm[54])

ASHVE began a robust research effort in 1919. By 1935, ASHVE-funded research conducted by Lemberg, Brandt, and Morse – again using human subjects in test chambers – suggested the primary component of "bad air" was an odor, perceived by the human olfactory nerves.[55] Human response to odor was found to be logarithmic to contaminant concentrations, and related to temperature. At lower, more comfortable temperatures, lower ventilation rates were satisfactory. A 1936 human test chamber study by Yaglou, Riley, and Coggins culminated much of this effort, considering odor, room volume, occupant age, cooling equipment effects, and recirculated air implications, which guided ventilation rates.[56] The Yaglou research has been validated, and adopted into industry standards, beginning with the ASA code in 1946. From this research base, ASHRAE (having replaced ASHVE) developed space-by-space recommendations, and published them as ASHRAE Standard 62-1975: Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.

As more architecture incorporated mechanical ventilation, the cost of outdoor air ventilation came under some scrutiny. In 1973, in response to the 1973 oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62–81) reduced required ventilation from 10 CFM (4.76 L/s) per person to 5 CFM (2.37 L/s) per person. In cold, warm, humid, or dusty climates, it is preferable to minimize ventilation with outdoor air to conserve energy, cost, or filtration. This critique (e.g. Tiller[57]) led ASHRAE to reduce outdoor ventilation rates in 1981, particularly in non-smoking areas. However subsequent research by Fanger,[58] W. Cain, and Janssen validated the Yaglou model. The reduced ventilation rates were found to be a contributing factor to sick building syndrome.[59]

The 1989 ASHRAE standard (Standard 62–89) states that appropriate ventilation guidelines are 20 CFM (9.2 L/s) per person in an office building, and 15 CFM (7.1 L/s) per person for schools, while 2004 Standard 62.1-2004 has lower recommendations again (see tables below). ANSI/ASHRAE (Standard 62–89) speculated that "comfort (odor) criteria are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation rate is set so that 1,000 ppm CO2 is not exceeded"[60] while OSHA has set a limit of 5000 ppm over 8 hours.[61]

Historical ventilation rates
Author or source Year Ventilation rate (IP) Ventilation rate (SI) Basis or rationale
Tredgold 1836 4 CFM per person 2 L/s per person Basic metabolic needs, breathing rate, and candle burning
Billings 1895 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Indoor air hygiene, preventing spread of disease
Flugge 1905 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Excessive temperature or unpleasant odor
ASHVE 1914 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Based on Billings, Flugge and contemporaries
Early US Codes 1925 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Same as above
Yaglou 1936 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Odor control, outdoor air as a fraction of total air
ASA 1946 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Based on Yahlou and contemporaries
ASHRAE 1975 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Same as above
ASHRAE 1981 10 CFM per person 5 L/s per person For non-smoking areas, reduced.
ASHRAE 1989 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Based on Fanger, W. Cain, and Janssen

ASHRAE continues to publish space-by-space ventilation rate recommendations, which are decided by a consensus committee of industry experts. The modern descendants of ASHRAE standard 62-1975 are ASHRAE Standard 62.1, for non-residential spaces, and ASHRAE 62.2 for residences.

In 2004, the calculation method was revised to include both an occupant-based contamination component and an area–based contamination component.[62] These two components are additive, to arrive at an overall ventilation rate. The change was made to recognize that densely populated areas were sometimes overventilated (leading to higher energy and cost) using a per-person methodology.

Occupant Based Ventilation Rates,[62] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

IP Units SI Units Category Examples
0 cfm/person 0 L/s/person Spaces where ventilation requirements are primarily associated with building elements, not occupants. Storage Rooms, Warehouses
5 cfm/person 2.5 L/s/person Spaces occupied by adults, engaged in low levels of activity Office space
7.5 cfm/person 3.5 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in higher levels of activity, but not strenuous, or activities generating more contaminants Retail spaces, lobbies
10 cfm/person 5 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in more strenuous activity, but not exercise, or activities generating more contaminants Classrooms, school settings
20 cfm/person 10 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in exercise, or activities generating many contaminants dance floors, exercise rooms

Area-based ventilation rates,[62] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

IP Units SI Units Category Examples
0.06 cfm/ft2 0.30 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is normal, or similar to an office environment Conference rooms, lobbies
0.12 cfm/ft2 0.60 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is significantly higher than an office environment Classrooms, museums
0.18 cfm/ft2 0.90 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is even higher than the previous category Laboratories, art classrooms
0.30 cfm/ft2 1.5 L/s/m2 Specific spaces in sports or entertainment where contaminants are released Sports, entertainment
0.48 cfm/ft2 2.4 L/s/m2 Reserved for indoor swimming areas, where chemical concentrations are high Indoor swimming areas

The addition of occupant- and area-based ventilation rates found in the tables above often results in significantly reduced rates compared to the former standard. This is compensated in other sections of the standard which require that this minimum amount of air is delivered to the breathing zone of the individual occupant at all times. The total outdoor air intake of the ventilation system (in multiple-zone variable air volume (VAV) systems) might therefore be similar to the airflow required by the 1989 standard.
From 1999 to 2010, there was considerable development of the application protocol for ventilation rates. These advancements address occupant- and process-based ventilation rates, room ventilation effectiveness, and system ventilation effectiveness[63]

Problems

[edit]
  • In hot, humid climates, unconditioned ventilation air can daily deliver approximately 260 milliliters of water for each cubic meters per hour (m3/h) of outdoor air (or one pound of water each day for each cubic feet per minute of outdoor air per day), annual average.[citation needed] This is a great deal of moisture and can create serious indoor moisture and mold problems. For example, given a 150 m2 building with an airflow of 180 m3/h this could result in about 47 liters of water accumulated per day.
  • Ventilation efficiency is determined by design and layout, and is dependent upon the placement and proximity of diffusers and return air outlets. If they are located closely together, supply air may mix with stale air, decreasing the efficiency of the HVAC system, and creating air quality problems.
  • System imbalances occur when components of the HVAC system are improperly adjusted or installed and can create pressure differences (too much-circulating air creating a draft or too little circulating air creating stagnancy).
  • Cross-contamination occurs when pressure differences arise, forcing potentially contaminated air from one zone to an uncontaminated zone. This often involves undesired odors or VOCs.
  • Re-entry of exhaust air occurs when exhaust outlets and fresh air intakes are either too close, prevailing winds change exhaust patterns or infiltration between intake and exhaust air flows.
  • Entrainment of contaminated outdoor air through intake flows will result in indoor air contamination. There are a variety of contaminated air sources, ranging from industrial effluent to VOCs put off by nearby construction work.[64] A recent study revealed that in urban European buildings equipped with ventilation systems lacking outdoor air filtration, the exposure to outdoor-originating pollutants indoors resulted in more Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) than exposure to indoor-emitted pollutants.[65]

See also

[edit]
  • Architectural engineering
  • Biological safety
  • Cleanroom
  • Environmental tobacco smoke
  • Fume hood
  • Head-end power
  • Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
  • Heat recovery ventilation
  • Mechanical engineering
  • Room air distribution
  • Sick building syndrome
  • Siheyuan
  • Solar chimney
  • Tulou
  • Windcatcher

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Malone, Alanna. "The Windcatcher House". Architectural Record: Building for Social Change. McGraw-Hill. Archived from the original on 22 April 2012.
  2. ^ ASHRAE (2021). "Ventilation and Infiltration". ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE. ISBN 978-1-947192-90-4.
  3. ^ a b Whole-House Ventilation | Department of Energy
  4. ^ de Gids W.F., Jicha M., 2010. "Ventilation Information Paper 32: Hybrid Ventilation Archived 2015-11-17 at the Wayback Machine", Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre (AIVC), 2010
  5. ^ Schiavon, Stefano (2014). "Adventitious ventilation: a new definition for an old mode?". Indoor Air. 24 (6): 557–558. Bibcode:2014InAir..24..557S. doi:10.1111/ina.12155. ISSN 1600-0668. PMID 25376521.
  6. ^ ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, Inc., Atlanta, GA, US
  7. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2024). "European residential ventilation: Investigating the impact on health and energy demand". Energy and Buildings. 304. Bibcode:2024EneBu.30413839B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113839.
  8. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2022). "Outdoor PM2. 5 air filtration: optimising indoor air quality and energy". Building & Cities. 3 (1): 186–203. doi:10.5334/bc.153.
  9. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2024). "European residential ventilation: Investigating the impact on health and energy demand". Energy and Buildings. 304. Bibcode:2024EneBu.30413839B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113839.
  10. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2023). "Influence of outdoor air pollution on European residential ventilative cooling potential". Energy and Buildings. 289. Bibcode:2023EneBu.28913044B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113044.
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  12. ^ Kavanaugh, Steve. Infiltration and Ventilation In Residential Structures. February 2004
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  14. ^ a b ASHRAE Standard 62
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  16. ^ "Natural Ventilation – Whole Building Design Guide". Archived from the original on 21 July 2012.
  17. ^ Shaqe, Erlet. Sustainable Architectural Design.
  18. ^ "Natural Ventilation for Infection Control in Health-Care Settings" (PDF). World Health Organization (WHO), 2009. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
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  20. ^ Centers For Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) "Improving Ventilation In Buildings". 11 February 2020.
  21. ^ Centers For Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) "Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care Facilities". 22 July 2019.
  22. ^ Dr. Edward A. Nardell Professor of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School "If We're Going to Live With COVID-19, It's Time to Clean Our Indoor Air Properly". Time. February 2022.
  23. ^ "A Paradigm Shift to Combat Indoor Respiratory Infection - 21st century" (PDF). University of Leeds., Morawska, L, Allen, J, Bahnfleth, W et al. (36 more authors) (2021) A paradigm shift to combat indoor respiratory infection. Science, 372 (6543). pp. 689-691. ISSN 0036-8075
  24. ^ Video "Building Ventilation What Everyone Should Know". YouTube. 17 June 2022.
  25. ^ Mudarri, David (January 2010). Public Health Consequences and Cost of Climate Change Impacts on Indoor Environments (PDF) (Report). The Indoor Environments Division, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 38–39, 63.
  26. ^ "Climate Change a Systems Perspective". Cassbeth.
  27. ^ Raatschen W. (ed.), 1990: "Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems: State of the Art Review Archived 2014-05-08 at the Wayback Machine", Swedish Council for Building Research, 1990
  28. ^ Mansson L.G., Svennberg S.A., Liddament M.W., 1997: "Technical Synthesis Report. A Summary of IEA Annex 18. Demand Controlled Ventilating Systems Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre (AIVC), 1997
  29. ^ ASHRAE (2006). "Interpretation IC 62.1-2004-06 Of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality" (PDF). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
  30. ^ Fahlen P., Andersson H., Ruud S., 1992: "Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems: Sensor Tests Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, Boras, 1992
  31. ^ Raatschen W., 1992: "Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems: Sensor Market Survey Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", Swedish Council for Building Research, 1992
  32. ^ Mansson L.G., Svennberg S.A., 1993: "Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems: Source Book Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", Swedish Council for Building Research, 1993
  33. ^ Lin X, Lau J & Grenville KY. (2012). "Evaluation of the Validity of the Assumptions Underlying CO2-Based Demand-Controlled Ventilation by a Literature review" (PDF). ASHRAE Transactions NY-14-007 (RP-1547). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
  34. ^ ASHRAE (2010). "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2010: Energy Standard for Buildings Except for Low-Rise Residential Buildings". American Society of Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.
  35. ^ a b "Ventilation. - 1926.57". Osha.gov. Archived from the original on 2 December 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2012.
  36. ^ Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre (AIVC). "What is smart ventilation?", AIVC, 2018
  37. ^ "Home". Wapa.gov. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2012.
  38. ^ ASHRAE, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc, Atlanta, 2002.
  39. ^ "Stone Pages Archaeo News: Neolithic Vinca was a metallurgical culture". www.stonepages.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
  40. ^ a b Porter, Dale H. (1998). The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney: Gentleman scientist and inventor, 1793–1875. Associated University Presses, Inc. pp. 177–79. ISBN 0-934223-50-5.
  41. ^ "The Towers of Parliament". www.parliament.UK. Archived from the original on 17 January 2012.
  42. ^ Alfred Barry (1867). "The life and works of Sir Charles Barry, R.A., F.R.S., &c. &c". Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  43. ^ a b Robert Bruegmann. "Central Heating and Ventilation: Origins and Effects on Architectural Design" (PDF).
  44. ^ Russell, Colin A; Hudson, John (2011). Early Railway Chemistry and Its Legacy. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-84973-326-7. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  45. ^ Milne, Lynn. "McWilliam, James Ormiston". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/17747. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  46. ^ Philip D. Curtin (1973). The image of Africa: British ideas and action, 1780–1850. Vol. 2. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-299-83026-7. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  47. ^ "William Loney RN – Background". Peter Davis. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  48. ^ Sturrock, Neil; Lawsdon-Smith, Peter (10 June 2009). "David Boswell Reid's Ventilation of St. George's Hall, Liverpool". The Victorian Web. Archived from the original on 3 December 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  49. ^ Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Reid, David Boswell" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 47. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
  50. ^ Great Britain: Parliament: House of Lords: Science and Technology Committee (15 July 2005). Energy Efficiency: 2nd Report of Session 2005–06. The Stationery Office. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-10-400724-2. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  51. ^ a b c Janssen, John (September 1999). "The History of Ventilation and Temperature Control" (PDF). ASHRAE Journal. American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
  52. ^ Tredgold, T. 1836. "The Principles of Warming and Ventilation – Public Buildings". London: M. Taylor
  53. ^ Billings, J.S. 1886. "The principles of ventilation and heating and their practical application 2d ed., with corrections" Archived copy. OL 22096429M.
  54. ^ "Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): Carbon dioxide – NIOSH Publications and Products". CDC. May 1994. Archived from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  55. ^ Lemberg WH, Brandt AD, and Morse, K. 1935. "A laboratory study of minimum ventilation requirements: ventilation box experiments". ASHVE Transactions, V. 41
  56. ^ Yaglou CPE, Riley C, and Coggins DI. 1936. "Ventilation Requirements" ASHVE Transactions, v.32
  57. ^ Tiller, T.R. 1973. ASHRAE Transactions, v. 79
  58. ^ Berg-Munch B, Clausen P, Fanger PO. 1984. "Ventilation requirements for the control of body odor in spaces occupied by women". Proceedings of the 3rd Int. Conference on Indoor Air Quality, Stockholm, Sweden, V5
  59. ^ Joshi, SM (2008). "The sick building syndrome". Indian J Occup Environ Med. 12 (2): 61–64. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.43262. PMC 2796751. PMID 20040980. in section 3 "Inadequate ventilation"
  60. ^ "Standard 62.1-2004: Stricter or Not?" ASHRAE IAQ Applications, Spring 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  61. ^ Apte, Michael G. Associations between indoor CO2 concentrations and sick building syndrome symptoms in U.S. office buildings: an analysis of the 1994–1996 BASE study data." Indoor Air, Dec 2000: 246–58.
  62. ^ a b c Stanke D. 2006. "Explaining Science Behind Standard 62.1-2004". ASHRAE IAQ Applications, V7, Summer 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  63. ^ Stanke, DA. 2007. "Standard 62.1-2004: Stricter or Not?" ASHRAE IAQ Applications, Spring 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  64. ^ US EPA. Section 2: Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2009.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  65. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2024). "European residential ventilation: Investigating the impact on health and energy demand". Energy and Buildings. 304. Bibcode:2024EneBu.30413839B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113839.
[edit]

Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

[edit]
  • Publications from the Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC)

[edit]
  • Publications from the International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC) ventilation-related research projects-annexes:
    • EBC Annex 9 Minimum Ventilation Rates
    • EBC Annex 18 Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems
    • EBC Annex 26 Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures
    • EBC Annex 27 Evaluation and Demonstration of Domestic Ventilation Systems
    • EBC Annex 35 Control Strategies for Hybrid Ventilation in New and Retrofitted Office Buildings (HYBVENT)
    • EBC Annex 62 Ventilative Cooling

International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate

[edit]
  • Indoor Air Journal
  • Indoor Air Conference Proceedings

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

[edit]
  • ASHRAE Standard 62.1 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
  • ASHRAE Standard 62.2 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Residential Buildings

 

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. Some researchers refer it to “various materials joined together to form a component of the final installation procedure“.

The most commonly cited definition is by Goodier and Gibb in 2007, which described the process of manufacturing and preassembly of a certain number of building components, modules, and elements before their shipment and installation on construction sites.[1]

The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other than structures at a fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a section of a machine or any movable structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to another location, and the section is supplied assembled and ready to fit. It is not generally used to refer to electrical or electronic components of a machine, or mechanical parts such as pumps, gearboxes and compressors which are usually supplied as separate items, but to sections of the body of the machine which in the past were fabricated with the whole machine. Prefabricated parts of the body of the machine may be called 'sub-assemblies' to distinguish them from the other components.

Process and theory

[edit]
Levittown, Puerto Rico

An example from house-building illustrates the process of prefabrication. The conventional method of building a house is to transport bricks, timber, cement, sand, steel and construction aggregate, etc. to the site, and to construct the house on site from these materials. In prefabricated construction, only the foundations are constructed in this way, while sections of walls, floors and roof are prefabricated (assembled) in a factory (possibly with window and door frames included), transported to the site, lifted into place by a crane and bolted together.

Prefabrication is used in the manufacture of ships, aircraft and all kinds of vehicles and machines where sections previously assembled at the final point of manufacture are assembled elsewhere instead, before being delivered for final assembly.

The theory behind the method is that time and cost is saved if similar construction tasks can be grouped, and assembly line techniques can be employed in prefabrication at a location where skilled labour is available, while congestion at the assembly site, which wastes time, can be reduced. The method finds application particularly where the structure is composed of repeating units or forms, or where multiple copies of the same basic structure are being constructed. Prefabrication avoids the need to transport so many skilled workers to the construction site, and other restricting conditions such as a lack of power, lack of water, exposure to harsh weather or a hazardous environment are avoided. Against these advantages must be weighed the cost of transporting prefabricated sections and lifting them into position as they will usually be larger, more fragile and more difficult to handle than the materials and components of which they are made.

History

[edit]
"Loren" Iron House, at Old Gippstown in Moe, Australia

Prefabrication has been used since ancient times. For example, it is claimed that the world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track constructed in England around 3800 BC, employed prefabricated timber sections brought to the site rather than assembled on-site.[citation needed]

Sinhalese kings of ancient Sri Lanka have used prefabricated buildings technology to erect giant structures, which dates back as far as 2000 years, where some sections were prepared separately and then fitted together, specially in the Kingdom of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa.

After the great Lisbon earthquake of 1755, the Portuguese capital, especially the Baixa district, was rebuilt by using prefabrication on an unprecedented scale. Under the guidance of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, popularly known as the Marquis de Pombal, the most powerful royal minister of D. Jose I, a new Pombaline style of architecture and urban planning arose, which introduced early anti-seismic design features and innovative prefabricated construction methods, according to which large multistory buildings were entirely manufactured outside the city, transported in pieces and then assembled on site. The process, which lasted into the nineteenth century, lodged the city's residents in safe new structures unheard-of before the quake.

Also in Portugal, the town of Vila Real de Santo António in the Algarve, founded on 30 December 1773, was quickly erected through the use of prefabricated materials en masse. The first of the prefabricated stones was laid in March 1774. By 13 May 1776, the centre of the town had been finished and was officially opened.

In 19th century Australia a large number of prefabricated houses were imported from the United Kingdom.

The method was widely used in the construction of prefabricated housing in the 20th century, such as in the United Kingdom as temporary housing for thousands of urban families "bombed out" during World War II. Assembling sections in factories saved time on-site and the lightness of the panels reduced the cost of foundations and assembly on site. Coloured concrete grey and with flat roofs, prefab houses were uninsulated and cold and life in a prefab acquired a certain stigma, but some London prefabs were occupied for much longer than the projected 10 years.[2]

The Crystal Palace, erected in London in 1851, was a highly visible example of iron and glass prefabricated construction; it was followed on a smaller scale by Oxford Rewley Road railway station.

During World War II, prefabricated Cargo ships, designed to quickly replace ships sunk by Nazi U-boats became increasingly common. The most ubiquitous of these ships was the American Liberty ship, which reached production of over 2,000 units, averaging 3 per day.

Current uses

[edit]
A house being built with prefabricated concrete panels.

The most widely used form of prefabrication in building and civil engineering is the use of prefabricated concrete and prefabricated steel sections in structures where a particular part or form is repeated many times. It can be difficult to construct the formwork required to mould concrete components on site, and delivering wet concrete to the site before it starts to set requires precise time management. Pouring concrete sections in a factory brings the advantages of being able to re-use moulds and the concrete can be mixed on the spot without having to be transported to and pumped wet on a congested construction site. Prefabricating steel sections reduces on-site cutting and welding costs as well as the associated hazards.

Prefabrication techniques are used in the construction of apartment blocks, and housing developments with repeated housing units. Prefabrication is an essential part of the industrialization of construction.[3] The quality of prefabricated housing units had increased to the point that they may not be distinguishable from traditionally built units to those that live in them. The technique is also used in office blocks, warehouses and factory buildings. Prefabricated steel and glass sections are widely used for the exterior of large buildings.

Detached houses, cottages, log cabin, saunas, etc. are also sold with prefabricated elements. Prefabrication of modular wall elements allows building of complex thermal insulation, window frame components, etc. on an assembly line, which tends to improve quality over on-site construction of each individual wall or frame. Wood construction in particular benefits from the improved quality. However, tradition often favors building by hand in many countries, and the image of prefab as a "cheap" method only slows its adoption. However, current practice already allows the modifying the floor plan according to the customer's requirements and selecting the surfacing material, e.g. a personalized brick facade can be masoned even if the load-supporting elements are timber.

Today, prefabrication is used in various industries and construction sectors such as healthcare, retail, hospitality, education, and public administration, due to its many advantages and benefits over traditional on-site construction, such as reduced installation time and cost savings.[4] Being used in single-story buildings as well as in multi-story projects and constructions. Providing the possibility of applying it to a specific part of the project or to the whole of it.

The efficiency and speed in the execution times of these works offer that, for example, in the case of the educational sector, it is possible to execute the projects without the cessation of the operations of the educational facilities during the development of the same.

Transportation of prefabricated Airbus wing assembly

Prefabrication saves engineering time on the construction site in civil engineering projects. This can be vital to the success of projects such as bridges and avalanche galleries, where weather conditions may only allow brief periods of construction. Prefabricated bridge elements and systems offer bridge designers and contractors significant advantages in terms of construction time, safety, environmental impact, constructibility, and cost. Prefabrication can also help minimize the impact on traffic from bridge building. Additionally, small, commonly used structures such as concrete pylons are in most cases prefabricated.

Radio towers for mobile phone and other services often consist of multiple prefabricated sections. Modern lattice towers and guyed masts are also commonly assembled of prefabricated elements.

Prefabrication has become widely used in the assembly of aircraft and spacecraft, with components such as wings and fuselage sections often being manufactured in different countries or states from the final assembly site. However, this is sometimes for political rather than commercial reasons, such as for Airbus.

Advantages

[edit]
  • Moving partial assemblies from a factory often costs less than moving pre-production resources to each site
  • Deploying resources on-site can add costs; prefabricating assemblies can save costs by reducing on-site work
  • Factory tools - jigs, cranes, conveyors, etc. - can make production faster and more precise
  • Factory tools - shake tables, hydraulic testers, etc. - can offer added quality assurance
  • Consistent indoor environments of factories eliminate most impacts of weather on production
  • Cranes and reusable factory supports can allow shapes and sequences without expensive on-site falsework
  • Higher-precision factory tools can aid more controlled movement of building heat and air, for lower energy consumption and healthier buildings
  • Factory production can facilitate more optimal materials usage, recycling, noise capture, dust capture, etc.
  • Machine-mediated parts movement, and freedom from wind and rain can improve construction safety
  • Homogeneous manufacturing allows high standardization and quality control, ensuring quality requirements subject to performance and resistance tests, which also facilitate high scalability of construction projects. [5]
  • The specific production processes in industrial assembly lines allow high sustainability, which enables savings of up to 20% of the total final cost, as well as considerable savings in indirect costs. [6]

Disadvantages

[edit]
  • Transportation costs may be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections (especially sections so big that they constitute oversize loads requiring special signage, escort vehicles, and temporary road closures) than for their constituent materials, which can often be packed more densely and are more likely to fit onto standard-sized vehicles.
  • Large prefabricated sections may require heavy-duty cranes and precision measurement and handling to place in position.

Off-site fabrication

[edit]

Off-site fabrication is a process that incorporates prefabrication and pre-assembly. The process involves the design and manufacture of units or modules, usually remote from the work site, and the installation at the site to form the permanent works at the site. In its fullest sense, off-site fabrication requires a project strategy that will change the orientation of the project process from construction to manufacture to installation. Examples of off-site fabrication are wall panels for homes, wooden truss bridge spans, airport control stations.

There are four main categories of off-site fabrication, which is often also referred to as off-site construction. These can be described as component (or sub-assembly) systems, panelised systems, volumetric systems, and modular systems. Below these categories different branches, or technologies are being developed. There are a vast number of different systems on the market which fall into these categories and with recent advances in digital design such as building information modeling (BIM), the task of integrating these different systems into a construction project is becoming increasingly a "digital" management proposition.

The prefabricated construction market is booming. It is growing at an accelerated pace both in more established markets such as North America and Europe and in emerging economies such as the Asia-Pacific region (mainly China and India). Considerable growth is expected in the coming years, with the prefabricated modular construction market expected to grow at a CAGR (compound annual growth rate) of 8% between 2022 and 2030. It is expected to reach USD 271 billion by 2030. [7]

See also

[edit]
  • Prefabricated home
  • Prefabricated buildings
  • Concrete perpend
  • Panelák
  • Tower block
  • St Crispin's School — an example of a prefabricated school building
  • Nonsuch House, first prefabricated building
  • Agile construction
  • Intermediate good

References

[edit]
  1. ^ (2022) Modularity clustering of economic development and ESG attributes in prefabricated building research. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. Retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2022.977887
  2. ^ Sargeant, Tony Anthony J. (11 November 2016) [2016-09-10]. "'Prefabs' in South London – built as emergency housing just after WW2 and meant to last for just 10 years". Tonyjsargeant.wordpress.com. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  3. ^ Goh, Edward; Loosemore, Martin (4 May 2017). "The impacts of industrialization on construction subcontractors: a resource based view". Construction Management and Economics. 35 (5): 288–304. doi:10.1080/01446193.2016.1253856. ISSN 0144-6193.
  4. ^ Details about the modular construction market. Hydrodiseno.com. 2022-08-17. Retrieved 2023-01-05
  5. ^ Zhou, Jingyang; Li, Yonghan; Ren, Dandan (November 2022). "Quantitative study on external benefits of prefabricated buildings: From perspectives of economy, environment, and society". Sustainable Cities and Society. 86. Bibcode:2022SusCS..8604132Z. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2022.104132.
  6. ^ Why Choose Modular Construction? Hydrodiseno.com. 2021-07-29. Retrieved 2023-03-07
  7. ^ Modular Construction Market Size is projected to reach USD 271 Billion by 2030, growing at a CAGR of 8%: Straits Research. Globenewswire.com. 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2023-02-16

Sources

[edit]

 

"Prefabricated Building Construction Systems Adopted in Hong Kong" (PDF). Retrieved 20 August 2013.

 

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